Document Type

Article

Publication Date

10-13-2016

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This article has been peer reviewed. It was published in: Journal of Neuroinflammation.

Volume 13, Issue 1, 13 October 2016, Article number 269.

The published version is available at DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0733-1

Copyright © 2016 The Author(s)

Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Dimethyl fumarate (DMF), working via its metabolite monomethylfumarate (MMF), acts as a potent antioxidant and immunomodulator in animal models of neurologic disease and in patients with multiple sclerosis. These properties and their translational potential led us to investigate whether DMF/MMF could also protect at-risk and/or dying neurons in models of ischemic stroke in vitro and in vivo. Although the antioxidant effects have been partially addressed, the benefits of DMF immunomodulation after ischemic stroke still need to be explored.

METHODS: In vitro neuronal culture with oxygen-glucose deprivation and rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion were subjected to DMF/MMF treatment. Live/dead cell counting and LDH assay, as well as behavioral deficits, plasma cytokine assay, western blots, real-time PCR (Q-PCR) and immunofluorescence staining, were used to evaluate the mechanisms and neurological outcomes.

RESULTS: We found that MMF significantly rescued cortical neurons from oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in culture and suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines produced by primary mixed neuron/glia cultures subjected to OGD. In rats, DMF treatment significantly decreased infarction volume by nearly 40 % and significantly improved neurobehavioral deficits after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). In the acute early phase (72 h after MCAO), DMF induced the expression of transcription factor Nrf2 and its downstream mediator HO-1, important for the protection of infarcted cells against oxidative stress. In addition to its antioxidant role, DMF also acted as a potent immunomodulator, reducing the infiltration of neutrophils and T cells and the number of activated microglia/macrophages in the infarct region by more than 50 % by 7-14 days after MCAO. Concomitantly, the levels of potentially harmful pro-inflammatory cytokines were greatly reduced in the plasma and brain and in OGD neuron/glia cultures.

CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that DMF is neuroprotective in experimental stroke because of its potent immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects and thus may be useful as a novel therapeutic agent to treat stroke in patients.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

PubMed ID

27733178

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