Document Type

Article

Publication Date

11-11-2025

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This article is the author’s final published version in Results in Materials, Volume 28, 2025, Article number 100818.

The published version is available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinma.2025.100818. Copyright © 2025 The Authors.

Abstract

This study examines a new approach for improving the dispersion of hydrophilic fillers into a hydrophobic polymer matrix, a long-standing challenge that often limits the thermal and mechanical performance of biocomposites. Two different fillers, natural cellulose microcrystals (CMC) and mineral calcium carbonate (CaCO3), were incorporated into polylactic acid (PLA) at five different weight fractions. Biocomposite films were prepared using physical mixing and cryo-milling, followed by hot pressing. Cryo-milling was explored as a strategy to enhance filler distribution within the matrix. Thermal properties, crystallization behavior, and mechanical performance were characterized using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and tensile testing, with statistical significance evaluated using t-scores. CMC addition lowered the glass transition temperature (Tg) by up to 7 ◦C (5 %-PHY), whereas CaCO3 increased Tg by up to 5 ◦C (40 %-PHY). Both fillers exhibited nucleating activity, with the largest crystallization temperature (Tc) reduction observed in CMC/PLA (− 6 ◦C at 5 %-CRYO). Thermal degradation temperature (Td) improved by up to 10 ◦C with CMC (10 %-CRYO) but decreased by as much as 74 ◦C with CaCO3 (40 %-CRYO). Mechanically, tensile strength and strain decreased with filler addition, but CMC composites, particularly those prepared by cryo-milling, retained greater ductility than CaCO3 composites. Modulus increased in all cases, with the highest gain for CaCO3/PLA (up to +79 %, 30 %-PHY). Rule of Mixtures, inverse ROM, and Halpin–Tsai model predictions indicated that PHY CaCO3 composites matched upper-bound reinforcement trends, while CRYO samples approached the lower-bound inverse ROM, reflecting weaker stress transfer from smaller particles and limited interfacial bonding. Although cryo-milling improved dispersion, good dispersion alone was insufficient to maximize mechanical performance. Enhancing interfacial adhesion, such as through surface modification, remains essential for achieving the full reinforcing potential of these fillers in sustainable PLA composites.

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Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Language

English

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